Persistent drought, climate volatility and population growth are forcing communities to rethink where their water comes from. As traditional sources such as rivers, snowpack and groundwater are less reliable, direct potable reuse (DPR) is emerging as one of the most dependable solutions. The technology is proven, regulations are advancing and more communities are exploring its potential. Yet one challenge remains: public perception.
Potable reuse, which includes both indirect potable reuse (IPR) and direct potable reuse (DPR), has emerged as a climate-resilient, locally controlled water supply solution.
"Both direct and indirect potable reuse rely on advanced treatment technologies that produce water meeting or exceeding drinking water standards. The difference is where that purified water goes next,” said Kevin Goetz, a construction manager with PCL Construction, Inc. Indirect potable reuse (IPR) routes water through an environmental buffer, such as a reservoir or aquifer, before it enters the drinking water system. DPR eliminates that intermediate step, delivering purified water directly into the drinking water system after multiple treatment barriers.
As more states establish regulatory frameworks for DPR, the conversation is shifting from whether the technology works to whether communities are ready to embrace it.
These advanced water treatments have been used across the globe since the 1960s to help communities adapt to water scarcity, but a messaging campaign derailed its adoption in the United States. Public perception is beginning to change. El Paso, Texas is on track to become the first U.S. city to deliver DPR water directly to residents’ taps, signaling growing confidence in the technology. That wasn’t always the case. For decades, potable reuse projects faced public skepticism fueled by the phrase “toilet-to-tap,” a label that oversimplified the science and overshadowed the rigorous treatment processes behind potable reuse.
When the narrative overtook the science
There has been a negative perception with advanced treatment of sewage water being directed into drinking water supply, spurred by the term “toilet to tap”.
A term amplified by political campaigns, media coverage and public skepticism, reduced a complex, highly engineered process into something simplistic, visual and emotionally charged. In many cases, that framing proved more influential than underlying science.
“The early wave of potable reuse projects in the 1990s collapsed under the weight of public fear and political pressure,” says Sara Katz, partner and strategic advisor at Bodewell Group. “The technology was there, but the narrative got ahead of the industry: ‘toilet to tap’ became shorthand for risk and distrust.” Within a short window, projects in San Diego, Tampa, Los Angeles and Upper San Gabriel Valley were shelved, canceled or indefinitely delayed.
Those experiences demonstrated that the greatest barriers to potable reuse are rarely technological. More often, they stem from public trust and understanding.
“There isn’t a potable reuse water project that I’m aware of that has been derailed due to technology or regulations. It’s all been about the politics, the people, the pundits and the press,” says Katz.
Potable reuse goes global
The technology behind direct potable reuse has been proven for decades. Prompted by severe drought, water scarcity and population demands, the world’s first large-scale potable reuse facility began operating in Windhoek, Namibia, in 1968 and now supplies up to 25% of the city's drinking water. That system, which treats wastewater to drinking water standards and delivers it directly to the municipal supply, has operated safely for generations and remains a global benchmark for potable reuse.
Similar potable reuse programs now operate around the world, including Singapore’s NEWater system and Europe's first direct potable reuse facility in Belgium. Their growing adoption reflects a broader shift in how communities view potable reuse. Rather than being treated solely as an emergency measure, these programs are increasingly being incorporated into long-term water supply strategies. Through public outreach, clear terminology and transparent performance reporting, they have helped build familiarity and trust, demonstrating that confidence in water reuse can grow when people see the technology operate safely and reliably over time.
El Paso Water Pure Water Center: A turning point for DPR in the U.S.
Now, more than 20 years later, potable reuse is making a comeback. In early 2025, El Paso Water, PCL Construction and partner Carollo Engineers broke ground on The El Paso Water Pure Water Center, the nation’s first direct-to-distribution potable reuse facility, designed to deliver up to 10 million gallons of purified drinking water per day directly into the city’s system. The project followed more than a decade of planning, testing and regulatory collaboration and has strong community and political support.
Public engagement has become as important to modern potable reuse projects as the treatment technology itself. The Pure Water Center includes a dedicated public education facility that will feature interactive exhibits explaining the treatment process, viewing areas to observe the purification stage and opportunities to sample purified water.
Photo description: Wastewater is first treated at the Roberto R. Bustamante Wastewater Plant — another PCL project currently undergoing expansion — before being routed to the Pure Water Center. There, advanced purification technologies remove any remaining contaminants, producing drinking-quality water that can be safely returned to the distribution system.
Unlike earlier projects from the 1990s, the Pure Water Center is positioned as a long-term solution for water resilience in a desert city. Once complete, the facility will diversity El Paso’s water supply, help meet peak summer demand and reduce groundwater pumping, preserving local aquifers.
Carollo Engineers
Unlike earlier projects from the 1990s, the Pure Water Center is positioned as a long-term solution for water resilience in a desert city. Once complete, the facility will diversity El Paso’s water supply, help meet peak summer demand and reduce groundwater pumping, preserving local aquifers.
The growing wave of Pure Water programs nationwide
El Paso is not alone. Cities such as San Diego, Denver and communities across California are advancing Pure Water programs that integrate potable reuse into broader water-supply portfolios. San Diego’s Pure Water Program is designed to provide up to half of the city’s water supply locally by 2035, reducing reliance on imported sources such as the Colorado River and Northern California Bay Delta while increasing drought resilience.
Collectively, these programs signal a shift from isolated pilot projects to mainstream adoption, supported by evolving regulations and growing public familiarity.
How drought, climate stress and demand are changing the conversation
After decades of debate, direct potable reuse is entering a new chapter. The science is proven, the infrastructure is deliverable and real-world examples have shown success. As water scarcity becomes a defining constraint, the question for most communities is no longer whether direct potable reuse is acceptable, but whether communities can afford not to use it.
